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This article is about the important technologies that have historically increased productivity. Productivity in general is a ratio of output to input in the production of goods and services. Productivity is increased by lowering the amount of labor, capital, energy or materials that go into producing economic goods. Increases in productivity are largely responsible for the increase in per capita living standards. ==History== Productivity improving technologies date back to antiquity, with rather slow progress until the late Middle Ages. Important examples of early to European medieval technology include the water wheel, the horse collar, the spinning wheel, the three field system (after 1500 the four field system-See: Crop rotation) and the blast furnace.〔 〕 All of these technologies had been in use in China, some for centuries, before being introduced to Europe.〔 〕 Technological progress was aided by literacy and the diffusion of knowledge that accelerated after the spinning wheel spread to Western Europe in the 13th century. The spinning wheel increased the supply of rags used for pulp in paper making, whose technology reached Sicily sometime in the 12th century. Cheap paper was a factor in the development of the movable type printing press, which lead to a large increase in the number of books and titles published. Books on science and technology eventually began to appear, such as the mining technical manual ''De Re Metallica'', which was the most important technology book of the 16th century and was the standard chemistry text for the next 180 years.〔 〕 Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is known for the scientific method, which was a key factor in the scientific revolution. Bacon stated that the technologies that distinguished Europe of his day from the Middle Ages were paper and printing, gunpowder and the magnetic compass, known as the Four great inventions. The Four great inventions important to the development of Europe were of Chinese origin. Other Chinese inventions included the horse collar, cast iron, an improved plow and the seed drill. See also: List of Chinese inventions Mining and metal refining technologies played a key role in technological progress. Much of our understanding of fundamental chemistry evolved from ore smelting and refining, with ''De Re Metallica'' being the leading chemistry text for 180 years.〔 Railroads evolved from mine carts and the first steam engines were designed specifically for pumping water from mines. The significance of the blast furnace goes far beyond its capacity for large scale production of cast iron. The blast furnace was the first example of continuous production and is a countercurrent exchange process, various types of which are also used today in chemical and petroleum refining. Hot blast, which recycled what would have otherwise been waste heat, was one of engineering's key technologies. It had the immediate effect of dramatically reducing the energy required to produce pig iron, but reuse of heat was eventually applied to a variety of industries, particularly steam boilers, chemicals, petroleum refining and pulp and paper. Before the 17th century scientific knowledge tended to stay within the intellectual community, but by this time it became accessible to the public in what is called "open science". Near the beginning of the Industrial Revolution came publication of the Encyclopédie, written by numerous contributors and edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1751–72). It contained many articles on science and was the first general encyclopedia to provide in depth coverage on the mechanical arts, but is far more recognized for its presentation of thoughts of the Enlightenment. Economic historians generally agree that, with certain exceptions such as the steam engine, there is no strong linkage between the 17th century scientific revolution (Descartes, Newton, etc.) and the Industrial Revolution.〔 However, an important mechanism for the transfer of technical knowledge was scientific societies, such as The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, better known as the Royal Society, and the Académie des Sciences. There were also technical colleges, such as the École Polytechnique. Scotland was the first place where science was taught (in the 18th century) and was where Joseph Black discovered heat capacity and latent heat and where his friend James Watt used knowledge of heat to conceive the separate condenser as a means to improve the efficiency of the steam engine.〔 〕 Probably the first period in history in which economic progress was observable after one generation was during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century.〔(Mark Overton: Agricultural Revolution in England 1500–1850 (2011) )〕 However, technological and economic progress did not proceed at a significant rate until the English Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, and even then productivity grew about 0.5% annually. High productivity growth began during the late 19th century in what is sometimes call the Second Industrial Revolution. Most major innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution were based on the modern scientific understanding of chemistry, electromagnetic theory and thermodynamics and other principles known to a new profession of engineering. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Productivity improving technologies (economic history)」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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